La historia del Cine ha estado dominada por el descubrimiento y prueba de paradojas inherentes al medio en si. El Cine usa máquinas para grabar imágenes de vida; combina fotografías fijas para dar la ilusión de movimiento continuo; parece presentar la vida misma, pero también ofrece realidades imposibles a las que sólo se aproximan los sueños

Unas palabras sobre el cine

El Cine se desarrolló hacia 1890 de la unión de la fotografía, la que registra la realidad física, con el juego de persistencia retiniana. que hacía parecer que los dibujos se movían. Cuatro principales tradiciones fílmicas se han desarrollado desde entonces

• La Película narrativa de ficción, que cuenta historias sobre gente con las que la platea se puede identificar porque su mundo parece familiar;
• Películas documentales, no de ficción, que se enfocan en el mundo real en vez de instruir o revelar algún tipo de verdad sobre este;
• Los dibujos animados, que hacen parecer que figuras dibujadas o esculpidas se mueven y hablan; y
• El cine experimental, que explota la habilidad del cine de crear mundos puramente abstractos, irreales como nunca antes se vió.

El Cine se considera como la más joven de las formas artísticas y ha heredado mucho de las artes más antiguas y tradicionales. Como la novela, puede contar historias; como el drama, puede reflejar conflicto entre personajes vivos; como la pintura, compone el espacio con luz, color, sombra, forma y textura; como la música, se mueve en el tiempo de acuerdo a principios de ritmo y tono; como la danza, representa el movimiento de figuras en el espacio y es frecuentmente secundado por música; y como la fotografía, presenta una versión bidimensional de lo que parece ser una realidad tridimensional, usando la perspectiva, la profundidad y la sombra.

El cine, sin embargo es una de las pocas artes que es tanto espacial como temporal, que manipula intencionalmente tanto el tiempo como el espacio. Esta síntesis ha generado dos teorías conflictivas sobre el cine y su desarrollo histórico. Algunos teóricos, como Sergei M. Eisenstein y Rudolf Arnheim, arguyen que el cine debe tomar el camino de las otras artes modernas y concentrarse no en contar historias y representar la realidad, sino en investigar el tiempo y el espacio de una manera pura y concientemente abstracta. Otros, como André Bazin y Siegfried Kracauer, sostienen que el cine debe por completo y cuidadosamente desarrollar sus conexiones con la naturaleza de modo que pueda retratar los sucesos humanos tan reveladora y excitantemente como sea posible.

El invento

Debido a su fama, su éxito en difundir sus actividades, y su hábito de patentar máquinas antes en verdad de inventarlas, Thomas Alva Edison recibió buena parte del crédito de haber inventado el cine; allá tan temprano como en 1887, el patentó una cámara de imágenes en movimiento, pero esta no podía producir imágenes. En verdad, muchos inventores contribuyeron al desarrollo de la imagen animada. Quizás la primera contribución importante fué una serie de fotos en movimiento hechas por Eadweard Muybridge entre 1872 y 1877. Contratado por el gobernador de California, Leland Stanford, para capturar en película el movimiento de un caballo a la carrerra, Muybridge unió una serie de cables a lo largo de una pista y conectó cada uno al disparador de una cámara fija. El caballo, mientras corría, jaló los cables y logró una serie de fotos, que Muybridge entonces montó en un disco estroboscópico y proyectó con una linterna mágica para reproducir la imagen del caballo en movimiento. Muybridge tomó cientos de estos estudios y dió una conferencia en Europa, donde su trabajo interesó al científico francés E. J. Marey. Marey ideó un medio de disparar fotos en movimiento con lo que llamó una pistola fotográfica.

Edison se interesó en las posibilidades de la fotografía en movimiento después de oír la conferencia de Muybridge in West Orange, Nueva Jersey. Los experimentos de Edison con fotos en movimiento, bajo la dirección de William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, se iniciaron en 1888 con un intento de grabar las fotografías en cilindros de cera similares a los usados para hacer las primeras grabaciones fonográficas. Dickson hizo un avance mucho mayor cuando decidió usar en cambio la película de celuloide de George Eastman. El celuloide era recio pero supple y podía fabricarse en largos rollos, haciéndolo un medio excelente para la fotografía en movimientoque requería grandes longitudes de película. entre 1891 y 1895, Dickson tomó muchas películas de 15 segundos usando la cámara de Edison, o Kinetógrafo, pero Edison decidió en contra de proyectar las películas al público--en parte porque los resultados visuales eran inadecuados y en parte porque pensó que las imágenes en movimiento tendrían poco aprecio del público. En cambio, Edison difundió una máquina ver impulsada por electricidad que jalaba agujeros (el Kinetoscopio) y mostraba las maravillas registradas a un espectador a la vez.

Edison pensó tan poco del Kinetoscopio que declinó extender sus derechos de patente a Inglaterra y Europa, una miopío que permitió a dos franceses, Louis y Auguste Lumiere, faricar una cámara más portatil y un proyector funcional, el Cinematógrafo, basado en la máquina de Edison. La era del cine se puede decir que empezó oficialmente el 28 de diciembre de 1895, cuando los Lumiere presentaron un programa de breves películas a un público pagante en el sótano de un café de París. inventores ingleses y alemanes también copiaron y mejoraron basados en las máquinas de Edison, Tal como muchos experimentadores en los Estados Unidos. A finales del siglo XIX un amplio número de personas, tanto en Europa como en Los Estados Unidos habían visto algún tipo de imágenes en movimiento.

Las películas más antiguas presentan 15- to 60-second glimpses de escenas reales filmadas en exteriores (trabajadores, trenes, carros de bombero, botes, paradas militares, soldados) o representaciones escenificadas filmadas en interiores.Estas dos tendencias iniciales --grabar la vida tal como es y dramatizar la vida para efectos artísticos-- pueden verse como los dos caminos dominantes en la historia del cine.

Georges Melies fué el más important de los primeros cineastas dramáticos. Mago de oficio, Melies mostró en películas como "El viaje a la Luna" (1902), cómo el cine podía realizar el más maravilloso truco de magia de todos: simplemente parando la cámara, añadiendo algo a la escena o quitando algo de ella, y luego arrancando la cámara de nuevo, hizo que las cosas simularan aparecer y desaparecer. Los primeros cineastas ingleses y franceses como Cecil Hepworth, James Williamson, y Ferdinand Zecca también descubrieron como el movimiento rítmico (la persecución) y la edición rítmica podían hacer el tratamiento de espacio y tiempo del cine más emocionante.

La película primitiva más interesante fue "El gran asalto al tren" (The Great Train Robbery) (1903), dirigida por Edwin S. Porter de la compañía Edison. Este western primario usó una edición y trabajo de cámara mucho más libre que lo usual para contar su historia, que incluía bandidos, a holdup, una persecución a chase by a posse, y un tiroteo final. When other companies (Vitagraph, el American Mutoscope y Biograph Company, Lubin, y Kalem entre estos) empezaron a producir películas que competían con las de la Edison Company, Edison los demandó por infringir sus derechos de patente. La tan mentada "guerra de las patentes" duró 10 años (1898-1908), terminando tan solo cuando nueve compañías líderes emergieron para formar la "Compañía de Patentes de Imágenes en Movimiento" (Motion Picture Patents Company).

Una razón para la formalización fueron las enormes ganancias que se derivaban de lo que había empezado sólo como una curiosidad barata. Antes de 1905 las películas se mostraban frecuentemente en una casa de vaudeville como uno de los actos en el programa. Después de 1905 n creciente número de pequeños teatros de fachada de almacén llamados "nickelodeons", con capacidad para menos de 200 feligreses, empezaron a mostrar películas exclusivamente. Hacia 1908 un estimado de diez millones de norteamericanos pagaban sus nickels (5 centavos) o dimes (diez centavos) para ver estas películas. Jóvenes especuladores como William Fox y Marcus Loew vieron en cinco años crecer sus teatros, que inicialmente no costaron sino $1,600 cada uno, a empresas que valían $150,000 cada una. Llamado "el teatro del pueblo", las primeras películas atrajeron fundamentalmente a público obrero e imigrante que halló en los nickelodeon una placentera diversión familiar. Puede ser que no hallan sido capaces de leer las palabras de novelas y diarios, pero entendieron el lenguaje silencioso de las películas.

La opularidad de las imágenes en movimiento condujeron a los primeros ataques contra estas, de parte de lo cruzadas de moralistas, policías y políticos. Para eliminar material objetable de las películas se establecieron comités de censura locales. En 1909 la la incipiente industria fílmica de los estados Unidos elevaron un contrataque al crear el primero de muchos comités de auto-censura, el Comité National de Censura (National Board of Censorship), llamado después de 1916 el Comité Nacional de Revisión (National Board of Review), cuyo propósito era establecer los estándares morales para las películas y ahorrarles así una costosa mutilación.

El programa de un Nickelodeon consistía en cerca de seis peliculitas de 10 minutos, usualmente incluían una aventura, una comedia, una película documental, una persecución y un melodrama. El más aplicado hacedor de estas películas fue D. W. GRIFFITH, quien casi con sus propias manos transformó tanto el arte como el negocio del cine. Griffith hizo cerca de 400 cortos entre 1908 y 1913, desarrollando o descubriendo en este periodo casi cada técnica importante del cine para manipular tiempo y espacio: el uso alterno de close-ups, planos medios, y panorámicas distantes; el control sutil del ritmo de edición, el uso efectivo de las tomas en movimiento (travelling), la iluminación atmosférica, el comentario narrativo, el detalle poético y el simbolismo visual; y las ventajas de la actuación understated, en la que su compañía era excelente. La culminación del trabajo de Griffith's fue The Birth of a Nation (1915), un mamut, épico de tres horas sobre la guerra civil y la reconstrucción. Su detalle histórico, suspenso y convicción pasional hicieron pasar de moda el corto de 10 minutos.

La década entre 1908 y 1918 fue una de las más importantes en la historia norteamericana del Cine. El largo remplazó a la serie de películas cortas; la Primera Guerra Mundial destruyó o restringió la industria cinamatográfica Europea, promoviendo mayor innovación técnica, crecimiento y estabilidad comercial en Estados Unidos; la industria cinematográfica se consolidó con la fundación de los primeros estudios grandes en  Hollywood, California (Fox, Paramount, y Universal); y las grandes comedias mudas norteamericanas aparecieron. Mack SENNETT se convirtió en la fuerza motriz detrás de la Keystone Company poco después de unirse a esta en 1912; Hal Roach fundó su compañía de comedias en 1914; y Charlie CHAPLIN era probablemente el rostro más conocido del mundo en 1916.

Durante este periodo las primeras estrellas de cine surgieron a la fama, remplazando a los anónimos intérpretes de los cortos. En 1918, Las dos estrellas favoritas de Estados Unidos, Charlie Chaplin y Mary PICKFORD, firmaron contratos por más de un millón de dólares. Otras estrellas familiares de la época inculían a los comediantes Fatty ARBUCKLE y John Bunny, los vaqueros William S. HART y Bronco Billy Anderson, los ídolos de matiné Rudolph VALENTINO y John Gilbert, y las alluring females Theda BARA y Clara BOW. Junto a las estrellas vinieron las primeras revistas para fans del cine; Photoplay publicó su número inaugural en 1912. Esew mismo año también vio la primera de las películas seriales (FILM SERIALS), Los peligros de pauline The Perils of Pauline, protagonizada por Pearl White.

La siguiente década en la historia del cine norteamericano, de 1918 a 1928, fue un periodo de estabilización más que de expansión. Las películas se hacían en complejos de estudios, que eran, en esencia, fábricas diseñadas para producir películas en la misma forma en que las fábricas de Henry Ford producían automóbiles. Las compañías cinematográficas se volvieron monopolios dado que no sólo hacían películas sino que las distribuían a las salas y poseían además las salas en que estas eran exhibidas. Esta integración vertical fue el cimiento comercial de la industria cinematográfica por los siguientes 30 años. Dos nuevas compañías productoras se fundadas durante esa década fueron Warner Brothers (1923), que se volvería poderosa con su pronta conversión al sonido sincronizado, y Metro-Goldwyn (más tarde en 1924 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer), el brazo productor de Loew bajo la dirección de Louis B. MAYER e Irving THALBERG.

Los Ataques contra la inmoralidad en las películas se intensificaron durante esta década, incitadas por las implicaciones sensuales de las prácticas sexuales de las estrellas de cine tanto dentro como fuera de la pantalla. En 1921, después de varios escándalos de sexo y drogas publicitados a nivel nacional, la industria se adelantó a la amenaza de CENSURA federal creando la Oficina de Productores y Distribuidores de Cine de América (Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America) (ahora Motion Picture Association of America), bajo la dirección de Will HAYS. Hays, que había sido jefe de prensa de los Estados Unidos y director de campaña de Warren G. Harding, empezó una serie de campañas de relaciones públicas para resaltar la importancia del cine en la vida americana. También hizo circular varias listas de prácticas que fueron de ahí en adelante prohibidas dentro y fuera de las pantallas.

Las películas de Hollywood de los años 20 fueron más pulidas, sutiles y talentosas y especialmente imaginativas en manejar la ausencia de sonido. Fue el gran momento de la comedia. Chaplin retained a hold on his world-following with full-length features such as El Pibe The Kid (1920) y La quimera del Oro The Gold Rush (1925); Harold LLOYD climbed his way to success--and got the girl--no matter how great the obstacles as Grandma's Boy (1922) or The Freshman (1925); Buster KEATON remained deadpan through a succession of wildly bizarre sight gags in Sherlock Jr. and The Navigator (both 1924); Harry Langdon was ever the innocent elf cast adrift in a mean, tough world; and director Ernst LUBITSCH, fresh from Germany, brought his "touch" to understated comedies of manners, sex, and marriage. The decade saw the United States's first great war film (The Big Parade, 1925), su primer gran western (The Covered Wagon, 1923; The Iron Horse, 1924), y su primera gran épica bíblica (The Ten Commandments, 1923, and King of Kings, 1927, both made by Cecil B. DE MILLE). Otras películas de esta era incuyen los estudios sexuales de Erich Von STROHEIM, los melodramas de grotesco vestuario de Lon CHANEY y las primera gran película documental Nanook of the North (1922) de Robert J. FLAHERTY.

In the same decade, the European film industries recovered from the war to produce one of the richest artistic periods in film history. The German cinema, stimulated by EXPRESSIONISM in painting and the theater and by the design theories of the BAUHAUS, created bizarrely expressionistic settings for such fantasies as Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari (1919), F. W. MURNAU's Nosferatu (1922), and Fritz LANG's Metropolis (1927). The Germans also brought their sense of decor, atmospheric lighting, and penchant for a frequently moving camera to such realistic political and psychological studies as Murnau's The Last Laugh (1924), G. W. PABST's The Joyless Street (1925), and E. A. Dupont's Variety (1925).

Innovation also came from the completely different approach taken by filmmakers in the USSR, where movies were intended not only to entertain but also to instruct the masses in the social and political goals of their new government. The Soviet cinema used montage, or complicated editing techniques that relied on visual metaphor, to create excitement and richness of texture and, ultimately, to affect ideological attitudes. The most influential Soviet theorist and filmmaker was Sergei M. Eisenstein, whose Potemkin (1925) had a worldwide impact; other innovative Soviet filmmakers of the 1920s included V. I. PUDOVKIN, Lev Kuleshov, Abram Room, and Alexander DOVZHENKO.

The Swedish cinema of the 1920s relied heavily on the striking visual qualities of the northern landscape. Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjostrom mixed this natural imagery of mountains, sea, and ice with psychological drama and tales of supernatural quests. French cinema, by contrast, brought the methods and assumptions of modern painting to film. Under the influence of SURREALISM and dadaism, filmmakers working in France began to experiment with the possibility of rendering abstract perceptions or dreams in a visual medium. Marcel DUCHAMP, Rene CLAIR, Fernand LEGER, Jean RENOIR--and Luis BUNUEL and Salvador DALI in Un Chien andalou (1928)--all made antirealist, antirational, noncommercial films that helped establish the avant-garde tradition in filmmaking. Several of these filmmakers would later make significant contributions to the narrative tradition in the sound era.

The era of the talking film began in late 1927 with the enormous success of Warner Brothers' The Jazz Singer. The first totally sound film, Lights of New York, followed in 1928. Although experimentation with synchronizing sound and picture was as old as the cinema itself (Dickson, for example, made a rough synchronization of the two for Edison in 1894), the feasibility of sound film was widely publicized only after Warner Brothers purchased the Vitaphone from Western Electric in 1926. The original Vitaphone system synchronized the picture with a separate phonographic disk, rather than using the more accurate method of recording (based on the principle of the OSCILLOSCOPE) a sound track on the film itself. Warners originally used the Vitaphone to make short musical films featuring both classical and popular performers and to record musical sound tracks for otherwise silent films (Don Juan, 1926). For The Jazz Singer, Warners added four synchronized musical sequences to the silent film. When Al JOLSON sang and then delivered several lines of dialogue, audiences were electrified. The silent film was dead within a year.

The conversion to synchronized sound caused serious problems for the film industry. Sound recording was difficult; cameras had to shoot from inside glass booths; studios had to build special soundproof stages; theaters required expensive new equipment; writers had to be hired who had an ear for dialogue; and actors had to be found whose voices could deliver it. Many of the earliest talkies were ugly and static, the visual images serving merely as an accompaniment to endless dialogue, sound effects, and musical numbers. Serious film critics mourned the passing of the motion picture, which no longer seemed to contain either motion or picture.

The most effective early sound films were those that played most adventurously with the union of picture and sound track. Walt DISNEY in his cartoons combined surprising sights with inventive sounds, carefully orchestrating the animated motion and musical rhythm. Ernst Lubitsch also played very cleverly with sound, contrasting the action depicted visually with the information on the sound track in dazzlingly funny or revealing ways. By 1930 the U.S. film industry had conquered both the technical and the artistic problems involved in using sight and sound harmoniously, and the European industry was quick to follow.

The 1930s was the golden era of the Hollywood studio film. It was the decade of the great movie stars--Greta GARBO, Marlene DIETRICH, Jean HARLOW, Mae WEST, Katharine HEPBURN, Bette DAVIS, Cary GRANT, Gary COOPER, Clark GABLE, James STEWART--and some of America's greatest directors thrived on the pressures and excitement of studio production. Josef von STERNBERG became legendary for his use of exotic decor and sexual symbolism; Howard HAWKS made driving adventures and fast-paced comedies; Frank CAPRA blended politics and morality in a series of comedy-dramas; and John FORD mythified the American West.

American studio pictures seemed to come in cycles, many of the liveliest being those that could not have been made before synchronized sound. The gangster film introduced Americans to the tough doings and tougher talk of big-city thugs, as played by James CAGNEY, Paul MUNI, and Edward G. ROBINSON. Musicals included the witty operettas of Ernst Lubitsch, with Maurice CHEVALIER and Jeanette MACDONALD; the backstage musicals, with their kaleidoscopically dazzling dance numbers, of Busby BERKELEY; and the smooth, more natural song-and-dance comedies starring Fred ASTAIRE and Ginger ROGERS. Synchronized sound also produced "screwball comedy," which explored the dizzy doings of fast-moving, fast-thinking, and, above all, fast-talking men and women.

The conflict between artistic freedom and censorship rose again with the talking picture. Spurred by the depression that hit the industry in 1933 and by the threat of an economic boycott by the newly formed Catholic Legion of Decency, the motion picture industry adopted an official Production Code in 1934. Written in 1930 by Daniel Lord, S.J., and Martin Quigley, a Catholic layman who was publisher of The Motion Picture Herald, the code explicitly prohibited certain acts, themes, words, and implications. Will Hays appointed Joseph I. Breen, the Catholic layman most instrumental in founding the Legion of Decency, head of the Production Code Administration, and this awarded the industry's seal of approval to films that met the code's moral standards. The result was the curtailment of explicit violence and sexual innuendo, and also of much of the flavor that had characterized films earlier in the decade.

The 1930s abroad did not produce films as consistently rich as those of the previous decade. With the coming of sound, the British film industry was reduced to satellite status. The most stylish British productions were the historical dramas of Sir Alexander Korda and the mystery-adventures of Alfred Hitchcock. The major Korda stars, as well as Hitchcock himself, left Britain for Hollywood before the decade ended. More innovative were the government-funded documentaries and experimental films made by the General Post Office Film Unit under the direction of John Grierson.

Soviet filmmakers had problems with the early sound-film machines and with the application of montage theory (a totally visual conception) to sound filming. They were further plagued by restrictive Stalinist policies, policies that sometimes kept such ambitious film artists as Pudovkin and Eisenstein from making films altogether. The style of the German cinema was perfectly suited to sound filming, and German films of the period 1928-32 show some of the most creative uses of the medium in the early years of sound. When the Nazis came to power in 1933, however, almost all the creative film talent left Germany. An exception was Leni RIEFENSTAHL, whose theatrical documentary Triumph of the Will (1934) represents a highly effective example of the German propaganda films made during the decade.

French cinema, the most exciting alternative to Hollywood in the 1930s, produced many of France's most classic films. The decade found director Jean Renoir--in Grand Illusion (1937) and Rules of the Game (1939)--at the height of his powers; Rene Clair mastered both the musical fantasy and the sociopolitical satire (A Nous la liberte, 1931); Marcel PAGNOL brought to the screen his trilogy of Marseilles life, Fanny; the young Jean VIGO, in only two films, brilliantly expressed youthful rebellion and mature love; and director Marcel CARNE teamed with poet Jacques Prevert to produce haunting existential romances of lost love and inevitable death in Quai des brumes (1938) and Le Jour se leve (1939).

During World War II, films were required to lift the spirits of Americans both at home and overseas. Many of the most accomplished Hollywood directors and producers went to work for the War Department. Frank Capra produced the "Why We Fight" series (1942-45); Walt Disney, fresh from his Snow White (1937) and Fantasia (1940) successes, made animated informational films; and Garson KANIN, John HUSTON, and William WYLER all made documentaries about important battles. Among the new American directors to make remarkable narrative films at home were three former screenwriters, Preston STURGES, Billy WILDER, and John Huston. Orson WELLES, the boy genius of theater and radio fame, also came to Hollywood to shoot Citizen Kane (1941), the strange story of a newspaper magnate whose American dream turns into a loveless nightmare.

Between 1946 and 1953 the movie industry was attacked from many sides. As a result, the Hollywood studio system totally collapsed. First, the U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities investigated alleged Communist infiltration of the motion picture industry in two separate sets of hearings. In 1948, The HOLLYWOOD TEN, 10 screenwriters and directors who refused to answer the questions of the committee, went to jail for contempt of Congress. Then, from 1951 to 1954, in mass hearings, Hollywood celebrities were forced either to name their associates as fellow Communists or to refuse to answer all questions on the grounds of the 5th Amendment, protecting themselves against self-incrimination. These hearings led the industry to blacklist many of its most talented workers and also weakened its image in the eyes of America and the world.

In 1948 the United States Supreme Court, ruling in United States v. Paramount that the vertical integration of the movie industry was monopolistic, required the movie studios to divest themselves of the theaters that showed their pictures and thereafter to cease all unfair or discriminatory distribution practices. At the same time, movie attendance started a steady decline; the film industry's gross revenues fell every year from 1947 to 1963. The most obvious cause was the rise of TELEVISION, as more and more Americans each year stayed home to watch the entertainment they could get most comfortably and inexpensively. In addition, European quotas against American films bit into Hollywood's foreign revenues.

While major American movies lost money, foreign art films were attracting an enthusiastic and increasingly large audience, and these foreign films created social as well as commercial difficulties for the industry. In 1951, The Miracle, a 40-minute film by Roberto ROSSELLINI, was attacked by the New York Catholic Diocese as sacrilegious and was banned by New York City's commissioner of licenses. The 1952 Supreme Court ruling in the Miracle case officially granted motion pictures the right to free speech as guaranteed in the Constitution, reversing a 1915 ruling by the Court that movies were not equivalent to speech. Although the ruling permitted more freedom of expression in films, it also provoked public boycotts and repeated legal tests of the definition of obscenity.

Hollywood attempted to counter the effects of television with a series of technological gimmicks in the early 1950s: 3-D, Cinerama, and Cinemascope. The industry converted almost exclusively to color filming during the decade, aided by the cheapness and flexibility of the new Eastman color monopack, which came to challenge the monopoly of Technicolor. The content of postwar films also began to change as Hollywood searched for a new audience and a new style. There were more socially conscious films--such as Fred ZINNEMANN's The Men (1950) and Elia KAZAN's On The Waterfront (1954); more adaptations of popular novels and plays; more independent (as opposed to studio) production; and a greater concentration on FILM NOIR--grim detective stories in brutal urban settings. Older genres such as the Western still flourished, and MGM brought the musical to what many consider its pinnacle in a series of films produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente MINNELLI, Gene KELLY, and Stanley Donen.

The stimulus for defining a new film content and style came to the United States from abroad, where many previously dormant film industries sprang to life in the postwar years. The defection of mass American audiences to television, their replacement by those willing to experience more unsettling film entertainment, film festivals where international films competed for commercial distribution, and foreign government support of film production all contributed to the growth of non-American film industries in the postwar years.

• Italia

The European film renaissance can be said to have started in Italy with such masters of NEOREALISM as Roberto Rossellini, in Open City (1945), Vittorio DE SICA, in The Bicycle Thief (1948) and Umberto D (1952), and Luchino VISCONTI, in La Terra Trema (1948). Federico FELLINI broke with the tradition to make films of a more poetic and personal nature such as I Vitelloni (1953) and La Strada (1954) and then shifted to a more sensational style in the 1960s with La Dolce Vita (1960) and the intellectual 8 1/2 (1963). Visconti in the 1960s and '70s adopted a more flamboyant approach and subject matter in lush treatments of corruption and decadence such as The Damned (1970). A new departure--both artistic and thematic--was evidenced by Michelangelo ANTONIONI in his subtle psychosocial trilogy of films that began with L'Aventura (1960). The vitality of Italian filmmaking continued throughout the 1970s and 1980s with the political and sexual allegories of Pier-Paolo PASOLINI (The Gospel According to St. Matthew, 1964; Teorema, 1968; Salo, 1977); with Bernardo BERTOLUCCI's fusing a radical political consciousness with a stunning visual style (The Conformist, 1970; Last Tango in Paris, 1972; 1900, 1977); and with retrospective glimpses of Italian history and cinema by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani (Padre Padrone, 1977; The Night of the Shooting Stars, 1983).

• Francia

With the coming of NEW WAVE films in the late 1950s, the French cinema reasserted the artistic primacy it had enjoyed in the prewar period. Applying a personal style to radically different forms of film narrative, New Wave directors included Claude CHABROL (The Cousins, 1959), Francois TRUFFAUT (The 400 Blows, 1959; Jules and Jim, 1961), Alain RESNAIS (Hiroshima Mon Amour, 1959), and Jean-Luc GODARD, who, following the success of his offbeat Breathless (1960), became progressively more committed to a Marxist interpretation of society, as seen in Two or Three Things I Know About Her (1966), Weekend (1967), and La Chinoise (1967). While Truffaut became obsessively concerned with the value of cinema as art, education, and communication (The Wild Child, 1969; Day for Night, 1973; The Last Metro, 1980), Godard became obsessively concerned with the way cinema--like all media of popular culture--masks the covert operations of ideology in bourgeoisie society (Tout va bien, 1972; Sauve qui peut, 1980; First Name: Carmen, 1983). Eric ROHMER, mining a more traditional vein, produced sophisticated "moral tales" in My Night at Maud's (1968), Claire's Knee (1970), Chloe in the Afternoon (1972), and Summer (1986). Louis MALLE audaciously explored such charged subjects as incest and collaborationism in Murmur of the Heart (1971) and Lacombe Lucien (1974).

• Suecia

From Sweden Ingmar BERGMAN emerged in the 1950s as the master of introspective, often death-obsessed studies of complex human relationships. Although capable of comedy, as in Smiles of a Summer Night (1955), Bergman was at his most impressive in more despairing, existentialist dramas such as The Seventh Seal (1957), Wild Strawberries (1957), Persona (1966), and Cries and Whispers (1972), in all of these aided by a first-rate acting ensemble and brilliant cinematography. In later color films, such as The Magic Flute (1974) and Fanny and Alexander (1982), Bergman cast off his fatalistic obsessions to reaffirm the magic of theater and cinema.

• Gran Bretaña

The British cinema, struggling in the shadow of Hollywood's English-language domination, had been largely reduced to a spate of Alec GUINNESS comedies by the early 1950s. Over the next decade, however, English directors produced compelling cinematic translations of the "angry young man" novelists and playwrights, of Harold PINTER's existentialist dramas, and of the traditional great British novels. Britain regained a healthy share of the market with films such as Jack Clayton's Room at the Top (1958); Tony Richardson's Look Back in Anger (1959), The Entertainer (1960), A Taste of Honey (1961), and Tom Jones (1963); Karel Reisz's Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) and Morgan (1966); Lindsay Anderson's This Sporting Life (1963); Joseph LOSEY's The Servant (1963) and Accident (1967); Ken RUSSELL's Women in Love (1969); and John Schlesinger's Sunday, Bloody Sunday (1971). The popularity of the James Bond spy series, which began in 1962, gave the industry an added boost.

• Europa Oriental y la Unión Soviética

The postwar cinemas of Eastern Europe walked a tightrope between their rich artistic tradition and official Soviet policies of artistic suppression. The Polish cinema enjoyed two major periods of creative freedom--in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and two decades later, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which saw the rise of the Solidarity worker's movement. Roman POLANSKI began with psychological studies of obsessed or neurotic characters (Knife in the Water, 1962; Repulsion, 1965), only to leave Poland for both American genre films and European literary adaptations (Rosemary's Baby, 1968; Macbeth, 1971; Chinatown, 1974; Tess, 1979). Andrzej WAJDA remained in Poland to direct films in both periods of expressive freedom (Kanal, 1957; Ashes and Diamonds, 1958; Man of Marble, 1977; Man of Iron, 1981).

With sketches of Czech life, films from Czechoslovakia dominated the international festivals for much of the 1960s. The major directors either remained silently in Czechoslovakia after the 1968 Soviet invasion (Jiri Menzel, Closely Watched Trains, 1966) or emigrated to the West (Jan KADAR, The Shop on Main Street, 1965). Most successful of Czech emigres has been Milos FORMAN (Loves of a Blonde, 1965; The Firemen's Ball, 1967), who found a home in Hollywood with his off-beat sketches of oddballs and loners (One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, 1975; Amadeus, 1984; Valmont, 1989).

Soviet films have never since equaled the international reputation of the silent classics by Eisenstein and Pudovkin. During the era of repression that ended only in the late 1980s, the few films to make an impact beyond the Soviet sphere of influence were sentimental recollections of the struggle against the Nazis (The Cranes Are Flying, 1959; Ballad of a Soldier, 1960) or the Boris Pasternak translations of Shakespeare classics, directed by Grigory KOZINTSEV (Hamlet, 1963; King Lear, 1971). The most adventurous Soviet directors made films with difficulty (Andrei Tarkovsky: Andrei Rublev, 1966; Solaris, 1971); or, once made, their work was locked up and forgotten. With the era of GLASNOST, however, many of these films began to surface. Audiences in the USSR and elsewhere can now see Aleksandr Askoldov's The Commissar (1967), or Tengiz Abuladze's epic satire of Stalin, Repentance, (made in 1982, released finally in 1986). Some of the new Soviet films bear unsettling resemblances to Hollywood films: the adolescent characters in Little Vera (1989), for example, behave exactly like their counterparts in the West.

• Alemania

The rise of a postwar generation of German filmmakers, nurtured almost exclusively on American films and actively supported by the German government, produced the most impressive national cinema of the 1970s--rich in its output and diverse in its styles. Volker Schlondorf specialized in literary adaptations (Young Torless, 1966; the Tin Drum, 1981) while Wim Wenders made German echoes of the American genre films that shaped his own view of both film and the world (Kings of the Road, 1976; The American Friend, 1977; Paris, Texas, 1984; Wings of Desire; 1988). Werner HERZOG directed psychological studies of obsessed characters who try to dominate their landscapes but are instead dominated by them (Aguirre, the Wrath of God, 1972; Kaspar Hauser, 1974; Fitzcarraldo, 1982). Rainer Werner FASSBINDER was the most eclectic of the new German group, specializing in political allegories that mixed a radical critique of bourgeois society, a sadomasochistic view of sexual power relationships, and references to the Hollywood cinema that he both loved and mistrusted (Ali, Fear Eats the Soul, 1972; Fox and His Friends, 1974; The Marriage of Maria Brown, 1978; Berlin Alexanderplatz, which was made for television, 1980). The death (1982) of Fassbinder ended an extraordinary and prolific career, but his absence has yet to be felt--particularly in the United States, where many of his earlier films are being shown for the first time. Among other German films to attract international attention were the operatic epics of Hans Jurgen Syberberg (Our Hitler, 1977; Parsifal, 1981) and, at the opposite extreme, the minimalist and Marxist critiques of cinema illusion by Jean-Marie Straub and Daniele Huillet (The Chronicle of Anna Magdalena Bach, 1968; Moses and Aaron, 1975).

• España

A promising national cinema emerged in Spain where, until the late 1970s, the regime of Generalissimo Francisco Franco had restricted expression in all the arts. The most distinguished Spanish filmmaker, Luis BUNUEL, rarely worked in Spain but produced his films largely in Mexico and France. Bunuel broke new ground with ironic examinations of the internal contradictions of religious dogma (Nazarin, 1958; Viridiana, 1961; The Milky Way, 1969) and middle-class life (The Discreet Charm of the Bourgoisie, 1972; That Obscure Object of Desire, 1977). Succeeding generations of Spanish filmmakers have been greatly influenced by Bunuel. They include Carlos Saura (Cria, 1976; Carmen, 1983; Ay, Carmela, 1990) and Pedro Almodovar (Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown, 1987; Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! 1990).

In the postwar era, directors outside the Western tradition for the first time brought their regional perceptions and concerns to an international audience.

• Japón

From Japan came Akira KUROSAWA, who opened a door to the West with his widely acclaimed Rashomon (1950), an investigation into the elusive nature of truth. His samurai dramas, such as The Seven Samurai (1954), Throne of Blood (1957), Yojimbo (1961), Kagemusha (1980), and Ran (1985) were ironic adventure tales that far transcended the usual Japanese sword movies, a genre akin to U.S. westerns. Kenzi MIZOGUCHI is known for his stately period films Ugetsu (1953) and Sansho the Bailiff (1955). Yoshiro OZU's poetic studies of modern domestic relations (Tokyo Story, 1953; An Autumn Afternoon, 1962) introduced Western audiences to a personal sensitivity that was both intensely national and universal. Younger directors, whose careers date from the postwar burgeoning of the Japanese film, include Teinosuke Kinugasa (Gate of Hell, 1953), Hiroshi Teshigahara (Woman of the Dunes, 1964, from a script by the novelist ABE KOBO), Masahiro Shinoda (Under the Cherry Blossoms, 1975), and Musaki Kobayashi, best known for his nine-hour trilogy on the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, The Human Condition (1959-61), and Harakiri (1962), a deglamorization of the samurai tradition. An outstanding figure in the new generation of Japanese filmmakers is Nagisa Oshima (Death by Hanging, 1965; In the Realm of the Senses, 1976), who shares many of the political and stylistic concerns of Jean Luc Godard. Juzo Itami makes comic movies that place the Japanese squarely between the horns of a tradition vs. modernism dilemma. They include Tampopo (1987) and Taxing Woman (1988)--both films that were as popular in the United States as in Japan.

• India

The Indian film industry produces more feature films than any other nation in the world for a vast population of movie goers. While most of these films follow clear and cheap formulas, the problems of an India in transition have been vividly brought to life in the quiet and reflective films of Satyajit RAY, particularly in the trilogy Pather Panchali (1955), Aparajito (1956), and The World of Apu (1958).

• El Tercer Mundo

Many other nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America have begun to produce films, primarily for their own regions but occasionally for the international market. Cuba dominates the Latin American cinema, with a vast government-funded film school and studio. Its most distinguished director has been Tomas Gutierrez Alea (Memories of Underdevelopment, 1968). With the loosening of political restrictions, the Brazilian and Argentinian cinemas emerged in the 1980s with such films as Hector Babenco's Pixote (1981) and Kiss of the Spider Woman, (1985), and--among many others--Fernando Solanas's Tango (1986).

In the 1980s, films from the People's Republic of China began to circulate throughout the West. Other East Asian films include those from Hong Kong, most of them of the kung fu variety.

• Australia

Although essentially Western, the Australian cinema shares many thematic concerns with nations that see themselves as historically colonized and economically exploited by the West. After a series of successes directed by Peter WEIR (The Last Wave, 1977; The Year of Living Dangerously, 1982), Gillian Armstrong (My Brilliant Career, 1979; and Star Struck, 1982), Fred Schepisi (The Devil's Playground and The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith, 1978), Bruce Beresford (Breaker Morant, 1980) and George Miller (Mad Max, 1979; The Road Warrior, 1981), many directors and stars (Judy Davis, Mel Gibson) left Australia for Hollywood.

Throughout the 1960s and '70s, the American film industry accommodated itself to the competition of this world market; to a film audience that had shrunk from 80 million to 20 million weekly; to the tastes of a primarily young and educated audience; and to the new social and sexual values sweeping the United States and much of the rest of the industrialized world. Major Hollywood studios became primarily offices for film distribution, and were often subsidiaries of huge conglomerates like Coca Cola. (A decade later, however ownership began to move overseas, notably to Japan, where the Sony Corp. bought Columbia and Matsushita purchased MCA.) Hollywood began to produce far more material for television than for movie theaters; and increasingly, films were shot in places other than Hollywood. New York City, for example, recovered its early status as a filmmaking center.

American movies of the period, from the beginning of the Kennedy presidency to the era of Watergate, moved strongly into social criticism (Doctor Strangelove, 1963; The Graduate, 1967; Bonnie and Clyde, 1967; 2001: a Space Odyssey, 1968; The Wild Bunch, 1969; MASH, 1970; McCabe and Mrs. Miller, 1971; The Godfather, 1972; The Conversation, 1974; One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, 1975). Challenging the traditional norms and institutions of American life--law, order, decency, and sexual purity--these films searched for spiritual meaning in an American society that had become entangled in Viet Nam, enslaved by the rigidly institutional and merely material. The collapse of the 1930 Hollywood Production Code and its 1968 replacement by the Motion Picture Rating System (G, PG, PG-13, R, and X), which indicated the level of audience maturity each film demanded, was an effect of these new themes. The X rating proved unworkable, and in 1990 was replaced by a new label, NC-17 (no children under 17).

The most successful directors--Stanley KUBRICK, Robert ALTMAN, Francis Ford COPPOLA, Woody ALLEN, George LUCAS, and Steven SPIELBERG--were those who played most imaginatively with the tools of film communication itself. The stars (with the exceptions of Paul NEWMAN and Robert REDFORD) were, for their part, more offbeat and less glamorous than their predecessors of the studio era--Robert DE NIRO, Jane Fonda (see FONDA FAMILY), Dustin HOFFMAN, Jack NICHOLSON, Al PACINO, Barbra STREISAND, Diane KEATON, Meryl STREEP.

The same two decades saw the rebirth of U.S. documentary films in the insightful work of Fred WISEMAN, the Maysles brothers, Donn Pennebaker, and, in Europe, Marcel OPHULS.

Since the late 1970s there has been a radical change in both film content and the distribution of the film product. While films of the previous decade challenged the myths of American life and movies, films of the late 1970s and the 1980s reaffirmed those myths and sought new ones. The epics of Steven SPIELBERG and George LUCAS (The Star Wars trilogy, 1977-83; Close Encounters of the Third Kind, 1977; Raiders of the Lost Ark, 1981; E.T.: The Extraterrestrial, 1982) offered an escape from social reality into a movieland Oz of myth and magic, aided by the often beautiful, sometimes awesome effects of visual technology (see CINEMATOGRAPHY; COMPUTER GRAPHICS). If many of the epics evoked the childhood wonder of space and magic, others called up the darker myths of horror, terror, and irrational menace (the Halloween and Friday the 13th series; Alien, 1979; Poltergeist, 1982).

Many films that remained earthbound returned to earnest or comic investigations of the dilemmas of everyday life (divorce and male parenting in Kramer vs. Kramer, 1979; a troubled family in Ordinary People, 1980; a nostalgic return to lost youth in The Big Chill, 1983; mother-daughter relationships in Terms of Endearment, 1983). The Dirty Harry series of Clint EASTWOOD films, as well as the Rocky and Rambo films of Sylvester Stallone, affirmed the power of assertive individualism. The newest popular genre, the "Teen Pic," in which a youth comes of age by discovering the value of social and sexual relationships, both acknowledged the age of the majority of the movie audience and adapted the classic "bildungsroman" (a novel, usually about the moral or intellectual maturing of youth) into optimistic teenage American terms (Saturday Night Fever, 1977; Flashdance, 1983; Risky Business, 1983; The Breakfast Club, 1985).

Vietnam has been revisited (Platoon, 1986; Full Metal Jacket, 1987; Born on the Fourth of July, 1990). Classics from other media are still being translated into cinema (The Bostonians, 1984; Passage to India, 1984; Room with a View, 1986; The Dead, 1987). In recent years, nostalgia has come in two versions: baseball mythologizing (The Natural, 1984; Bull Durham, 1988; Field of Dreams, 1989), and live-actor reproductions of revered comic strips (the Superman series, which began in 1978 but continued well into the 1980s; Batman, 1989; Dick Tracy, 1990).

Since the 1980s, the film and television industries have become virtually indistinguishable. Not only do feature films use television technologies (videotape, video cameras, and video monitors), but every feature film is composed for eventual viewing on television. The simultaneous arrival of cable television and videocassette recorders (VCRs) increased both the need and the audience for feature films in the home. The conversion of feature films to the VCR has almost totally eliminated CinemaScope and other striking visual technologies, reversing the visual tendency of four decades toward complex, contrapuntal compositions in extreme depth and width. (Imax, a recent big-screen system, uses 70-millimeter film and fills a screen area ten times as big as the standard. But its use has been restricted, primarily, to specialty showings, such as those at museums.) Visual complexity simply cannot be seen on the small television screen. Instead, movies have invested in stereo soundtracks, which sound tremendous in the theater and on high-fidelity VCRs. To make their older films more attractive for television, the industry has invented a method for adding color to black and white films.

Gerald Mast

Bibliografía de Cine

Agel, Henry. 1962. Estética del cine. Buenos Aires, Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires.

Bettetini, Gianfranco. 1975. Cine: Lengua y escritura. México, Fondo de Cultura Económica.

Chiarini, Luigi. 1968. Arte y técnica del film. Barcelona, Ediciones Península.

Duca, Lo. 1960. Historia del cine. Buenos Aires, Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires.

May, Renato. 1962. El lenguaje del film. Madrid, Ediciones Rialp, S.A.

Sandoul, G. 1960. Las maravillas del cine. México, Breviarios. Fondo de Cultura Económica.

St. John Marner, Terence. 1984. Cómo dirigir cine. Madrid, Editorial Fundamentos.

Allen, Robert C., and Gomery, Douglas, Film History: Theory and Practice (1985)

Arnheim, Rudolf, Film as Art (1957; repr. 1971)

Bazin, Andre, What is Cinema?, 2 vols., trans. by Hugh Gray (1967, 1971)

Brownlow, Kevis, The Parade's Gone By (1968)

Cook, David A., A History of Narrative Film, 1889-1979 (1981)

Cowie, Peter, ed., Concise History of the Cinema, 2 vols. (1970)

Downing, John D., Third World Cinema (1988)

Eisenstein, Sergei M., Film Form (1949; repr. 1969)

Ellis, J.C., A History of Film, 3d ed. (1990)

Halliwell, Leslie, Filmgoer's Companion, 6th ed. (1977)

Jowett, Garth, Film: The Democratic Art (1976)

Kael, Pauline, Reeling (1976), 5,000 Nights at the Movies: A Guide from A to Z (1982)

Movie Love: Complete Reviews, 1988-1991 (1991)

Kracauer, Siegfried, Theory of Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality (1960)

Leff, Leonard J., and Simmons, Jerold L., The Dame in the Kimono: Hollywood, Censorship, and the Production Code, from the 1920s to the 1960s (1990)

Mast, Gerald, A Short History of the Movies, 4th ed. (1986)

Mast, Gerald, and Cohen, Marshall, Film Theory and Criticism, 3d ed. (1985)

Medved, Michael, Hollywood vs. America: Popular Culture and the War on Traditional Values (1992)

Monaco, James, How to Read a Film (1977)

Peary, Danny, Cult Movies (1981);

Robinson, David, The History of World Cinema (1973).

Revisado: febrero 26, 2008.

HISTORIAS NACIONALES DE CINE

LATINOAMERICANO, CANADIENSE Y ESTADOUNIDENSE: Bogle, Donald, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films (1973); Bordwell, David, Thompson, Kristin, and Staiger, Janet, The Classical Hollywood Cinema (1984); Burton, Julianne, The New Latin Cinema (1976); Gabler, Neal, An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood (1988); Hamilton, Ian, Writers in Hollywood, 1915-51 (1990); Harpole, Charles, general editor, History of the American Cinema, 3 vols. (1991); Haskell, Molly, From Reverence to Rape (1974); Jowett, Garth, Film: the Democratic Art (1976); Medved, Michael, Hollywood vs. America (1992); Monaco, James, American Film Now: The People, the Power, the Movies (1979); Morris, Peter, Embattled Shadows: A History of the Canadian Film (1979); Nevares, B. R., The Mexican Cinema (1976); Quart, Leonard, and Auster, Albert, American Film and Society Since 1945 (1985); Russo, Vito, The Celluloid Closet (1981); Sarris, Andrew, The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968 (1968); Sklar, Robert, Movie-Made America (1975); Veroneau, Pierre, ed., The Canadian Cinema (1979).

AUSTRALIANO: Bertrand, Ina, ed., Cinema in Australia (1990); Murray, Scott, ed., The New Australian Cinema (1981); Rhode, Eric, History and Heartburn: The Saga of Australian Film (1981); Stratton, David, The Last New Wave: The Australian Film Revival (1981).

BRITÁNICO: Armes, Roy, A Critical History of British Cinema (1978); Durgnat, Raymond, A Mirror for England (1971); Low, Rachael, The History of British Film, 4 vols. (1973); Manvell, Roger, New Cinema in Britain (1969).

CHINO: Clark, Paul, Chinese Cinema (1988); Eberhard, Wolfram, The Chinese Silver Screen (1972).

FRANCÉS: Abel, R., French Cinema: The First Wave, 1915-29 (1987); Armes, Roy, The French Cinema Since 1946, 2 vols., rev. ed. (1970); Harvey, Sylvia, May '68 and Film Culture (rev. ed., 1980); Monaco, James, The New Wave: Truffaut, Godard, Chabrol, Rohmer, Rivette (1976); Sadoul, Georges, French Film (1953; repr. 1972).

ALEMÁN: Barlow, John D., German Expressionist Film (1982); Elsaessar, T., New German Cinema (1989); Hull, David S., Film of the Third Reich: A Study of the German Cinema, 1933-1945 (1969); Kracauer, Siegfried, From Caligari to Hitler (1959); Manvell, Roger, and Fraenkel, Heinrich, The German Cinema (1971); Phillips, Klaus, ed., New German Filmmakers (1984); Sandford, John, The New German Cinema (1980); Riefenstahl, Leni, Leni Riefenstahl: A Memoir (1993); Wollenberg, H. H., Fifty Years of German Film (1948; repr. 1972).

INDIO: Barnouw, Erik, and Krishnaswamy, S., Indian Film, 2d ed. (1980).

ITALIANO: Jarratt, Vernon, Italian Cinema (1951; repr. 1972); Leprohon, Pierre, The Italian Cinema (1972); Rondi, Gian, Italian Cinema Today (1965); Witcombe, Roger, The New Italian Cinema (1982).

JAPONÉS: Bock, Audie, Japanese Film Directors (1978); Burch, Noel, To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in Japanese Cinema (1979); Mellen, Joan, The Waves at Genji's Door: Japan Through Its Cinema (1976); Richie, Donald, The Films of Akira Kurosawa (1965), The Japanese Movie: An Illustrated History (1966), and The Japanese Cinema (1971); Sato, Tadao, Currents in Japanese Cinema (1982).

SOVIÉTICO Y DE EUROPA ORIENTAL: Cohen, Louis H., The Cultural-Political Traditions and Development of the Soviet Cinema, 1917-1972 (1974); Dickenson, Thorold, and De La Roche, Catherine, Soviet Cinema (1948; repr. 1972); Kurzewski, Stanislas, Contemporary Polish Cinema (1980); Leyda, Jay, Kino: A History of the Russian and Soviet Film (1960; repr. 1973); Liehm, Antonin J. and Mira, The Most Important Art: East European Film after 1945 (1977); Taylor, Richard, Film Propaganda: Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany (1979).

SUECO: Cowie, Peter, Swedish Cinema (1969); Donner, Jorn, The Personal Vision of Ingmar Bergman (1964); Hardy, Forsyth, The Scandinavian Film (1952; repr. 1972).